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Towards Adaptation to Climate Change: Water for Rice in the Coastal Wetlands of Doñana, Southern Spain

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Abstract

Rice production in coastal wetlands provides critical ecosystem services that range from flood control to wildlife habitat. In the Iberian Peninsula rice was introduced in the 10th Century. Today Iberian rice accounts for about one quarter of the total rice production of the European Union, almost exclusively cultivated in the coastal wetlands of Spain, with permanent flooding. The intensive water management required to produce rice stands at a crucial point since freshwater supply is deteriorating at an unprecedented rate. Here we explore flexible adaptation options to climate change in the Doñana wetlands - a world heritage and biodiversity site - from two points of view: What are the policy options for agricultural water management in view of climate change? How can informed stakeholders contribute to better adaptation? The first question is addressed by simulating water availability to farmers with the WAAPA model under a range of adaptation policy options derived from the view of the local communities. The second question was addressed by means of participatory research. Adaptation options are framed according to the local environmental, social and policy context. Results suggest that perception on the potential role of new water infrastructure and farming subsidies dominates the view of local communities. The choices of the stakeholders that could be simulated with the hydrological model, were quantified in terms of additional water availability for the rice farming, therefore providing a quantitative measure to the qualitative solutions. Information provided during the study shaped the final adaptation options developed. Our research contributes to the definition of sustainable rice production in Europe.

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Acknowledgments

This research was supported by the Spanish Biodiversity Foundation project of Adaptation in Doñana, implemented and coordinated by WWF-Spain and the BASE project of the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission (http://base-adaptation.eu/). We acknowledge the helpful comments of two anonymous reviewers.

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Correspondence to Ana Iglesias.

Appendices

Appendix 1. Guidelines for the Interviews

1.1 Objective of the Research

Coastal systems in the North-east Atlantic Ocean are expected to experience adverse impacts due to projected sea-level rise and climate change. There is a need to improve the planning by assessment of coastal vulnerability and flexible adaptation from the local scale and engage widely with relevant stakeholders.

The main goal of this research is to assess the climate change risk and what are the potential adaptation options in the Doñana coastal wetlands, a world heritage and biodiversity site with an intensive agricultural activity under scarcity conditions. We aimed to contribute to adaptation plans development in the case study region including the participation of informed stakeholders. The research was completed within the Spanish Biodiversity Foundation project of Adaptation in Doñana, implemented and coordinated by WWF-Spain.

1.2 Methodology

The interviews aimed to draw a broad outline of the case study’s vulnerability based on the expertise and knowledge of local actors and develop a range of flexible adaptation options according to the local environmental, social and policy context.

The interview survey was conducted across different days in February 2012 and eleven key participants from relevant sectors of the coastal wetland were encouraged to give their input. The requirements for the participants’ selection were: i) to be working on activities related to the rice production and the natural ecosystem during the last decade; ii) to have an extensive knowledge about the rice productive sector and to have regular contact with the rice farmers; ii) to have an extensive knowledge about the welfare of the wetland and the natural ecosystem functioning; and iii) to be informed on the water management requirements to cope successfully with the rice production and the natural ecosystem.

1.3 Interview Questions

Type of question

Selected interview question

Introduction

Q1: Name

Q2: Background and experience in the region

Q3: Employment status

Perception of climate change risks/impacts for the rice farming and the natural ecosystem

Q4: Do you feel that the Doñana socio-environmental system has changed due to climate variability or extreme events (droughts, heat waves, rainfall distributions) over the last 20 years? (E.g. severe droughts of 1979/80, 1991/95 or 2004/05)?

Q5: Have you noticed changes in the yields or the growing cycle (shortening/lengthening) of rice crops in the wetland?

Q6: Have you noticed changes in the presence or occurrence of pests, weeds and diseases?

Q7: Have you noticed changes in the management (e.g., operations, irrigation, use of fertilizers/sprays) of rice crops?

Q8: Have you noticed river hydro morphological alterations or changes in the water availability and quality (e.g., salinity of water) in the region?

Q9: Have you noticed changes in the distribution of natural vegetation and wildlife?

Q10: What factor do you consider as the most harmful for the rice farming and the natural ecosystem in the region?

Perception of flexible adaptation options for the rice farming and the natural ecosystem

Q11: What measures have been implemented to tackle climate variability and climate change?

Q12: What strategies have been implemented to ensure water availability?

Q13: What importance do you consider that may have strategies to increase water savings?

Q14: What adaptation options do you consider the most effective for the rice farming and the natural ecosystem in the region?

Q15: What are the main drivers and tools to undertake these adaptation measures and strategies?

Q16: What are the main barriers to the implementation of climate change adaptation options in the region?

Other comments

Q17: Are there any other issues that you consider important in relation to the climate change risks and adaptation which have not tried yet in this interview?

Appendix 2. Summary of the Responses of the Interviews

Identification of risks and adaptation options

Farmer association (5)

Administration (3)

Environmentalists (3)

Main risk for the artificial rice wetland

Decreased water availability

Decreased water availability

Decreased water availability

 

Increased water salinity

Increased water salinity

Increased water salinity

 

Higher temperatures

Higher temperatures

 
  

Reductions of water stored

 
  

Heavy rains and higher deposits appearance

 

Most effective adaptation, overall

Changes of water management

Water saving

Energy and water savings

 

Modernization of irrigation systems

Increased scientific research, field studies and transferring

Increased scientific research, field studies and farmers training

 

Water recirculation and reutilization within the paddy

Improved coordination between institutions, aggregated of the information and dissemination

Strategies to conserve biodiversity and ensure the provision of ecosystem services

 

New dams construction and other water infrastructures

Improved monitoring and information on water use

Regulations from WFD and the Hydrologic Plan of the Guadalquivir River Basin

  

Reduction of the cultivated areas located closer to the sea

Long-term climate change strategies and agreements

  

Increased the technical efficiency of the irrigation systems

Increased dissemination, public participation and environmental awareness raising

  

Local climate change actions

Organic agriculture

  

Dikes construction to contain marine intrusion

 

Responsible for implementing adaptation

Administration; rice farming unions and cooperatives

Administration; Rice farming unions and cooperatives; Research groups to facilitate

Administration; Rice farming unions and cooperatives; Research groups to facilitate

Barriers to implement adaptation

The lack of clear actions

Rice farming conservative traditions

Rice farming conservative traditions

 

Larger reductions of inputs (water, fertilizers, sprays)

The difficult for generational renewal and change due to aging farmers’ population

The difficult for generational renewal and change due to aging farmers’ population

 

Marine intrusion during drought periods

Farmers’ short-term perception of risks and profit-driven principles

Farmers’ short-term perception of risks and profit-driven principles

 

New CAP environmental requirements

The lack of interest of rice farmers in climate change issues and debates

The lack of interest of rice farmers in climate change issues and debates

 

Energy prices

Easy crop management, all the operations are subcontracted

Low labour needs and high water comsuption

 

Lower yields and quality crops

High subsidies dependence

The lack of environmental awareness

 

Irrigation water costs

Clay soils, risks of floods

New CAP environmental requirements

 

Extremely competitive and highly volatile price sector

The unstable equilibrium of the Doñana system

The lack of accurate irrigation water measures (flow meters)

Risks related to water scarcity

Water availability reductions

Water availability reductions

Water availability reductions

 

Turbidity, muddy water

Turbidity, muddy water

Water stored reductions

 

Cumulative impacts in the Guadalquivir River Basin affect the rice fields

 

Cumulative impacts in the Guadalquivir River Basin affect the rice fields

 

Erosion problems

  

Adaptation to increased water scarcity

Changes of water management

Changes of water management

Changes of water management

 

Modernization of irrigation systems

Modernization of irrigation systems

Water saving strategies

 

Water recirculation and reutilization within the paddy

Water recirculation and reutilization within the paddy

Water recirculation and reutilization within the paddy

 

Laser levelling

Installation of flow meters

Modernization of irrigation systems avoiding new water infrastructures with environmental impact

 

New dams construction and other water infrastructures

 

Efficient solutions for both the rice farming and the natural ecosystem

 

Setting of irrigation turns

 

Long-term agreements on water and climate change management (water markets, water use allocation permits)

 

Increased farmers training, technical advice and scientific information

 

Actions at the basin level leading flexible adaptation strategies to climate change

 

New rice varieties adapted to water and heat stress

 

Regulations from WFD and the Hydrologic Plan of the Guadalquivir River Basin

 

Installation of flow meters

  
 

Reduced energy costs

  

Perception of the importance of water saving

High

High

High

Risk related to increased salinity

Increased soil salinity

Increased soil salinity

Increased soil salinity

 

Increased salinity in the aquifer

Increased salinity in the aquifer

Increased salinity in the aquifer

   

Biodiversity losses

Adaptation to increased salinity

Dam water releases upstream from the rice area

Dam water releases upstream from the rice area

Dam water releases upstream from the rice area

 

Flooding irrigation systems to wash soils

 

Organic production (good farming practices)

 

New pipeline to bring in the water directly upstream from the salt water intrusion

  

Risk related to increased invasive species, pests and diseases

Ineffectiveness of current plant protection products

 

Biodiversity losses

Adaptation to increased invasive species, pests and diseases

Integrated production

Integrated production

Integrated production

Risk related to decreased rice productivity and quality

Reduction of the rice cultivated areas

Reduction of the rice cultivated areas

Reduction of the rice cultivated areas

 

Lower income

  

Adaptation to decreased productivity and quality

Changes of the management (integrated production)

Changes of the management (integrated production)

Changes of the management (integrated production)

 

New longer cycle rice varieties (J-sendra de 155 or Puntal 145)

Improved commercialization

New varieties but not including those GMOs

 

Modernization and innovative technical measures

Farmers training and environmental awareness raising

Farmers training and environmental awareness raising

   

Improved the product processed to be exported (organic products)

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Iglesias, A., Sánchez, B., Garrote, L. et al. Towards Adaptation to Climate Change: Water for Rice in the Coastal Wetlands of Doñana, Southern Spain. Water Resour Manage 31, 629–653 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-015-0995-x

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