Abstract
Rice production in coastal wetlands provides critical ecosystem services that range from flood control to wildlife habitat. In the Iberian Peninsula rice was introduced in the 10th Century. Today Iberian rice accounts for about one quarter of the total rice production of the European Union, almost exclusively cultivated in the coastal wetlands of Spain, with permanent flooding. The intensive water management required to produce rice stands at a crucial point since freshwater supply is deteriorating at an unprecedented rate. Here we explore flexible adaptation options to climate change in the Doñana wetlands - a world heritage and biodiversity site - from two points of view: What are the policy options for agricultural water management in view of climate change? How can informed stakeholders contribute to better adaptation? The first question is addressed by simulating water availability to farmers with the WAAPA model under a range of adaptation policy options derived from the view of the local communities. The second question was addressed by means of participatory research. Adaptation options are framed according to the local environmental, social and policy context. Results suggest that perception on the potential role of new water infrastructure and farming subsidies dominates the view of local communities. The choices of the stakeholders that could be simulated with the hydrological model, were quantified in terms of additional water availability for the rice farming, therefore providing a quantitative measure to the qualitative solutions. Information provided during the study shaped the final adaptation options developed. Our research contributes to the definition of sustainable rice production in Europe.
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Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Spanish Biodiversity Foundation project of Adaptation in Doñana, implemented and coordinated by WWF-Spain and the BASE project of the 7th Framework Programme of the European Commission (http://base-adaptation.eu/). We acknowledge the helpful comments of two anonymous reviewers.
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Appendices
Appendix 1. Guidelines for the Interviews
1.1 Objective of the Research
Coastal systems in the North-east Atlantic Ocean are expected to experience adverse impacts due to projected sea-level rise and climate change. There is a need to improve the planning by assessment of coastal vulnerability and flexible adaptation from the local scale and engage widely with relevant stakeholders.
The main goal of this research is to assess the climate change risk and what are the potential adaptation options in the Doñana coastal wetlands, a world heritage and biodiversity site with an intensive agricultural activity under scarcity conditions. We aimed to contribute to adaptation plans development in the case study region including the participation of informed stakeholders. The research was completed within the Spanish Biodiversity Foundation project of Adaptation in Doñana, implemented and coordinated by WWF-Spain.
1.2 Methodology
The interviews aimed to draw a broad outline of the case study’s vulnerability based on the expertise and knowledge of local actors and develop a range of flexible adaptation options according to the local environmental, social and policy context.
The interview survey was conducted across different days in February 2012 and eleven key participants from relevant sectors of the coastal wetland were encouraged to give their input. The requirements for the participants’ selection were: i) to be working on activities related to the rice production and the natural ecosystem during the last decade; ii) to have an extensive knowledge about the rice productive sector and to have regular contact with the rice farmers; ii) to have an extensive knowledge about the welfare of the wetland and the natural ecosystem functioning; and iii) to be informed on the water management requirements to cope successfully with the rice production and the natural ecosystem.
1.3 Interview Questions
Type of question | Selected interview question |
Introduction | Q1: Name Q2: Background and experience in the region Q3: Employment status |
Perception of climate change risks/impacts for the rice farming and the natural ecosystem | Q4: Do you feel that the Doñana socio-environmental system has changed due to climate variability or extreme events (droughts, heat waves, rainfall distributions) over the last 20 years? (E.g. severe droughts of 1979/80, 1991/95 or 2004/05)? Q5: Have you noticed changes in the yields or the growing cycle (shortening/lengthening) of rice crops in the wetland? Q6: Have you noticed changes in the presence or occurrence of pests, weeds and diseases? Q7: Have you noticed changes in the management (e.g., operations, irrigation, use of fertilizers/sprays) of rice crops? Q8: Have you noticed river hydro morphological alterations or changes in the water availability and quality (e.g., salinity of water) in the region? Q9: Have you noticed changes in the distribution of natural vegetation and wildlife? Q10: What factor do you consider as the most harmful for the rice farming and the natural ecosystem in the region? |
Perception of flexible adaptation options for the rice farming and the natural ecosystem | Q11: What measures have been implemented to tackle climate variability and climate change? Q12: What strategies have been implemented to ensure water availability? Q13: What importance do you consider that may have strategies to increase water savings? Q14: What adaptation options do you consider the most effective for the rice farming and the natural ecosystem in the region? Q15: What are the main drivers and tools to undertake these adaptation measures and strategies? Q16: What are the main barriers to the implementation of climate change adaptation options in the region? |
Other comments | Q17: Are there any other issues that you consider important in relation to the climate change risks and adaptation which have not tried yet in this interview? |
Appendix 2. Summary of the Responses of the Interviews
Identification of risks and adaptation options | Farmer association (5) | Administration (3) | Environmentalists (3) |
Main risk for the artificial rice wetland | Decreased water availability | Decreased water availability | Decreased water availability |
Increased water salinity | Increased water salinity | Increased water salinity | |
Higher temperatures | Higher temperatures | ||
Reductions of water stored | |||
Heavy rains and higher deposits appearance | |||
Most effective adaptation, overall | Changes of water management | Water saving | Energy and water savings |
Modernization of irrigation systems | Increased scientific research, field studies and transferring | Increased scientific research, field studies and farmers training | |
Water recirculation and reutilization within the paddy | Improved coordination between institutions, aggregated of the information and dissemination | Strategies to conserve biodiversity and ensure the provision of ecosystem services | |
New dams construction and other water infrastructures | Improved monitoring and information on water use | Regulations from WFD and the Hydrologic Plan of the Guadalquivir River Basin | |
Reduction of the cultivated areas located closer to the sea | Long-term climate change strategies and agreements | ||
Increased the technical efficiency of the irrigation systems | Increased dissemination, public participation and environmental awareness raising | ||
Local climate change actions | Organic agriculture | ||
Dikes construction to contain marine intrusion | |||
Responsible for implementing adaptation | Administration; rice farming unions and cooperatives | Administration; Rice farming unions and cooperatives; Research groups to facilitate | Administration; Rice farming unions and cooperatives; Research groups to facilitate |
Barriers to implement adaptation | The lack of clear actions | Rice farming conservative traditions | Rice farming conservative traditions |
Larger reductions of inputs (water, fertilizers, sprays) | The difficult for generational renewal and change due to aging farmers’ population | The difficult for generational renewal and change due to aging farmers’ population | |
Marine intrusion during drought periods | Farmers’ short-term perception of risks and profit-driven principles | Farmers’ short-term perception of risks and profit-driven principles | |
New CAP environmental requirements | The lack of interest of rice farmers in climate change issues and debates | The lack of interest of rice farmers in climate change issues and debates | |
Energy prices | Easy crop management, all the operations are subcontracted | Low labour needs and high water comsuption | |
Lower yields and quality crops | High subsidies dependence | The lack of environmental awareness | |
Irrigation water costs | Clay soils, risks of floods | New CAP environmental requirements | |
Extremely competitive and highly volatile price sector | The unstable equilibrium of the Doñana system | The lack of accurate irrigation water measures (flow meters) | |
Risks related to water scarcity | Water availability reductions | Water availability reductions | Water availability reductions |
Turbidity, muddy water | Turbidity, muddy water | Water stored reductions | |
Cumulative impacts in the Guadalquivir River Basin affect the rice fields | Cumulative impacts in the Guadalquivir River Basin affect the rice fields | ||
Erosion problems | |||
Adaptation to increased water scarcity | Changes of water management | Changes of water management | Changes of water management |
Modernization of irrigation systems | Modernization of irrigation systems | Water saving strategies | |
Water recirculation and reutilization within the paddy | Water recirculation and reutilization within the paddy | Water recirculation and reutilization within the paddy | |
Laser levelling | Installation of flow meters | Modernization of irrigation systems avoiding new water infrastructures with environmental impact | |
New dams construction and other water infrastructures | Efficient solutions for both the rice farming and the natural ecosystem | ||
Setting of irrigation turns | Long-term agreements on water and climate change management (water markets, water use allocation permits) | ||
Increased farmers training, technical advice and scientific information | Actions at the basin level leading flexible adaptation strategies to climate change | ||
New rice varieties adapted to water and heat stress | Regulations from WFD and the Hydrologic Plan of the Guadalquivir River Basin | ||
Installation of flow meters | |||
Reduced energy costs | |||
Perception of the importance of water saving | High | High | High |
Risk related to increased salinity | Increased soil salinity | Increased soil salinity | Increased soil salinity |
Increased salinity in the aquifer | Increased salinity in the aquifer | Increased salinity in the aquifer | |
Biodiversity losses | |||
Adaptation to increased salinity | Dam water releases upstream from the rice area | Dam water releases upstream from the rice area | Dam water releases upstream from the rice area |
Flooding irrigation systems to wash soils | Organic production (good farming practices) | ||
New pipeline to bring in the water directly upstream from the salt water intrusion | |||
Risk related to increased invasive species, pests and diseases | Ineffectiveness of current plant protection products | Biodiversity losses | |
Adaptation to increased invasive species, pests and diseases | Integrated production | Integrated production | Integrated production |
Risk related to decreased rice productivity and quality | Reduction of the rice cultivated areas | Reduction of the rice cultivated areas | Reduction of the rice cultivated areas |
Lower income | |||
Adaptation to decreased productivity and quality | Changes of the management (integrated production) | Changes of the management (integrated production) | Changes of the management (integrated production) |
New longer cycle rice varieties (J-sendra de 155 or Puntal 145) | Improved commercialization | New varieties but not including those GMOs | |
Modernization and innovative technical measures | Farmers training and environmental awareness raising | Farmers training and environmental awareness raising | |
Improved the product processed to be exported (organic products) |
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Iglesias, A., Sánchez, B., Garrote, L. et al. Towards Adaptation to Climate Change: Water for Rice in the Coastal Wetlands of Doñana, Southern Spain. Water Resour Manage 31, 629–653 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-015-0995-x
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DOI: https://doi.org/10.1007/s11269-015-0995-x